Dawn lives in an apartment with her dog Fluffy and her boyfriend Bill. A year ago Bill began buying and selling illegal drugs.
One day Bill asked Dawn to deliver a plastic bag containing a white powder to a house on Main Street. Dawn believed the bag contained cocaine and refused, saying, "I wish you would stop dealing cocaine. I want nothing to do with your dirty business."
Bill flew into a rage. He said, "I am sick and tired of your superior attitude. If you don't deliver this bag, then I am going to kill Fluffy." He then grabbed the dog and held a knife against its side until Fluffy began to squeal.
Afraid for Fluffy’s well-being, Dawn agreed to deliver the bag and its contents. She put the bag in her purse, got into her car, and drove towards Main Street. She drove very carefully and within the posted speed limit to avoid getting stopped by the police. As she approached Main Street, a two-year-old boy, Victor, darted out in front of Dawn's car. Her car struck Victor before she had a chance to apply her brakes. Victor was killed immediately by the impact.
While still at the accident scene, the police arrived and arrested Dawn. In searching her purse they discovered the white powder. Chemical analysis revealed that the white powder was cocaine.
With what crimes may Dawn be charged and what defenses could she raise? Discuss.
Answered by: Jason Temmy
University: Makerere university
Programme: Bachelor of Laws
Year : III
Year : III
Contact: Jasontemy1@gmail.com
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I. Criminal Charges against Dawn
Accomplice
An accomplice is one who encourages, assists, aids, or abets in the commission of a crime. Here, Dawn delivered a plastic bag containing a white powder, later to be discovered as cocaine, to a house on Main Street. This act alone is sufficient to establish charging Dawn as an accomplice. Dawn, however, may have defenses to these actions discussed infra.
Dawn also, however, lives in an apartment with her boyfriend Bill and we are told that Bill began buying and selling illegal drugs a year ago. Dawn believed that the bag contained cocaine and attempted to refuse his request, saying, “I wish you would stop dealing cocaine. I want nothing to do with your dirty business.” If Dawn had been living with someone that she knew possessed and sold cocaine, some jurisdictions may hold her liable as an accomplice for this act alone and it may not be subject to the defenses discussed infra.
Conspiracy
Conspiracy occurs when there is an agreement between two or more people to do an unlawful act or a lawful act by unlawful means and the defendant commits an overt act in furtherance of the conspiracy. Here, Dawn agreed with Bill to deliver the bag that she believed contained cocaine and its contents (unlawful act) for Bill. Dawn’s act of putting the bag in her purse, getting in her car, and driving towards Main Street is an overt act in furtherance of their conspiracy. Dawn, however, did not have a “guilty mind” per se, as she did not want to commit the crime in question (infra). This fact and the defense of duress discussed below, however, may be a successful defense against conspiracy. Nonetheless, Dawn may be charged with conspiracy.
Pinkerton Rule
Under the Pinkerton Rule, coconspirators are guilty of the crimes that are a reasonably foreseeable consequence of the commission of the crime. Here, Dawn may be charged with any crimes that are a reasonably foreseeable consequence of her conspiracy with Bill.
Murder
Murder is the killing of another human being (homicide) with malice. Malice is established if the defendant acted with intent to kill, intent to cause grave bodily harm, with willful/wanton disregard for human life (depraved heart), or the homicide was committed during the commission of a dangerous felony (felony murder rule). Here, Victor darted out in front of Dawn’s car and her car struck Victor before she had a chance to apply her brakes. Dawn’s actions caused the death of Victor. Dawn, however, did not have an intent to Kill Victor, an intent to cause him grave/great bodily harm, nor did she act with wanton/willful disregard for human life. In fact, Dawn was driving very carefully and within the posted speed limit to avoid getting stopped by the police. Application of the felony murder rule, however, warrants discussion.
1st Degree Murder
1st degree murder requires an intent to kill that is premeditated (thought about the act of killing before doing so) and deliberated (cool mind capable of reflection) or if the felony murder rule applies. From the facts, the only way Dawn can possibly be guilty of 1st degree murder is under the felony murder rule. Any other form of murder would be 2nd degree murder.
Felony Murder Rule
The felony murder rule holds that if the actor kills another human being while they are engaged in the commission of an inherently dangerous felony, the homicide is held as 1st degree murder. Here, Dawn killed Victor while she was delivering cocaine for Bill. If Dawn’s crime is considered an inherently dangerous felony, she may be charged with 1st degree murder under the felony murder rule. Dawn, however, will have a defense against the underlying crime of being an accomplice and/or transporting/possession of a controlled substance (infra) and these defenses may also impact her likelihood of being successfully charged with murder and mitigate her charge accordingly to either voluntary manslaughter or, more likely, involuntary manslaughter.
Voluntary manslaughter is murder that is mitigated due to provocation (heat of passion), unreasonable mistake, coercion, or necessity. Here, Dawn may be able to mitigate a charge of murder to voluntary manslaughter due to acting under duress from Bill. A fortiori, however, Dawn had no intent to kill and murder will only need to be mitigated if Dawn is guilty under the felony murder rule. If there is no murder, involuntary manslaughter is the more likely charge.
Involuntary Manslaughter
Involuntary manslaughter is the accidental killing of another human being due to gross criminal negligence/recklessness. Here, Dawn killed Victor by hitting him with her car. This act appears to be involuntary manslaughter on its face. Dawn, however, does not appear to have been operating her vehicle with gross criminal negligence. She was driving very carefully and within the posted speed limit to avoid getting stopped by police. The court, however, may find that the reason she was driving in the first place (delivering cocaine) suffices to establish gross criminal negligence for her conduct. Dawn may be charged with involuntary manslaughter of Victor.
Possession of Controlled/Illegal Substance
Illegal possession of a controlled or illegal substance is a crime in the majority of jurisdictions. Here, Dawn was delivering cocaine for Bill and, while the police were at the accident scene of her and Victor, they found the cocaine in Dawn’s purse. Chemical analysis revealed that the white powder was cocaine. Also, Dawn believed that the powder was cocaine before she began the delivery and prior to the analysis confirmation. Thus, whether the jurisdiction holds such possession as a crime requiring knowledge of the substance or it is a strict liability crime (guilty without fault), Dawn will be charged with possession of a controlled/illegal substance. Defenses, however, may apply (infra).
Attempt to Distribute Controlled/Illegal Substance
Attempt requires that the defendant have the specific intent to perform acts which, if they are carried out, will result in the target crime and the defendant takes a substantial step in furtherance of her goal. Here, Dawn technically intended to perform the act of delivering the controlled substance. Her act of placing the cocaine in her purse, getting in her car, and driving towards Main Street is a substantial step in furtherance of the goal. Dawn, however, was doing so under duress and did not have a criminal or guilty state of mind when committing these acts. Thus, her charge may be successfully defended against. Nonetheless, she may be charged with attempting to distribute a controlled/illegal substance.
Defenses:
Duress (conspiracy, attempt, possession, murder)
Duress is a defense holding that the defendant reasonably believed she was under the threat of imminent physical harm or death unless she committed the crime in question. This defense essentially holds the key to Dawn’s guilt on most of the aforementioned charges. Here, Dawn agreed to deliver the cocaine and actually did so only because Bill was threatening to kill Dawn’s dog, Fluffy. Dawn initially resisted Bill’s solicitation of her to commit the crime, saying, “I wish you would stop dealing cocaine. I want nothing to do with your business.” Bill, however, flew into a rage, saying “If you don’t deliver this bag, then I am going to kill Fluffy.” Bill then grabbed the dog and held a knife against its side until Fluffy began to squeal. Importantly, the threat of harm/death was to Fluffy and not Dawn. The fact dogs are considered property and not on level legal ground with humans will play a factor. Nonetheless, many people form strong bonds with their animals and would not want to see them harmed or killed and may be willing to commit the crime in question to save their dog. If this threat of imminent physical harm or death to Fluffy is enough to make a reasonable person commit the crime in question, then Dawn may have a successful defense against the charges noted supra.
State v. Dawn
Conspiracy:
A conspiracy is an agreement between two or more persons to commit an unlawful act or a lawful act in an unlawful manner.
Here, Dawn agreed to deliver the bag and its contents. Dawn made the agreement with Bill. Dawn believed the bag contained cocaine. Since cocaine is illegal, the delivery of which [sic] would be an illegal act. Some jurisdictions require an overt act in furtherance of the conspiracy. The facts that Dawn believed the bag contained cocaine, put the bag in her purse, got into her car and drive towards Main Street, all attest to overt acts in furtherance of the conspiracy.
Defense(s)
Duress: Dawn will raise the defense of Duress.
Duress is the act of committing an unlawful act under threat or fear of harm.
Dawn will assert that she initially refused Bill by stating that she wished Bill would “stop dealing cocaine” and she wanted “nothing to do with” Bill’s dirty business. However, once Bill threatened Fluffy’s life, then she had no choice but to deliver the cocaine. This defense may fail, because Bill did not threaten Dawn or another human being.
Fluffy is a dog and a dog is property.
However, since a dog is a living creature, evidenced by Fluffy’s squeal, a person such as Dawn may feel compassion and not wish the dog to be harmed. The facts clearly state that Dawn was afraid for Fluffy’s well being. Overall, the defense for duress will most likely fail.
Feigned Agreement: A person may not be found guilty of conspiracy if they feigned the agreement. Dawn, afraid for Fluffy’s well being, did agree to deliver the cocaine.
Attempt to deliver illegal drugs.
An attempt is the specific intent to commit an act. It must go beyond the mere stages of preparation to perpetration. Dawn placed the bag of cocaine in her purse, got into her car and drove towards Main Street. Dawn had agreed to deliver a plastic bag she thought contained cocaine. Absent striking and killing Victor, the crime would have been completed. Therefore, Dawn could be found guilty of attempt to deliver illegal drugs, absent a valid defense.
Defenses
Duress: Discussed supra.
Homicide:
The killing of a human being by another.
Here, Dawn’s (D) car struck Victor (V). V was killed immediately by the impact. V was a human being. Therefore, a homicide was committed.
Murder is a homicide committed with malice aforethought. Malice can be found by (1) Specific intent to kill, premeditation & deliberation, (2) Intent to cause grave bodily injury, (3) Wanton & Willful disregard for human life (“Depraved Heart”), or (4) Felony Murder. Here (D) did not have the specific intent to kill V. Nor do the facts support intent to cause grave bodily injury. D drove very carefully and within the posted speed limit, thus there is no indication of wanton or willful disregard to the value of human life.
Felony Murder: At common law if an innocent person died during the commission of a felony, such as burglary, arson, rape, robbery or mayhem, then the act of committing the felony would impute malice for murder. Here D was delivering a bag of cocaine, which is not one of the big five felonies at common law.
- The driving of a bag of cocaine in and of itself is not inherently dangerous.
- Therefore malice would not be imputed via felony murder.
Causation:
D would need to be both the actual and proximate cause of the death of V.
Actual Cause:
But for D striking V with her car, V would not have been killed. D is the actual cause of V’s death.
D struck V before she had a chance to apply the brakes. V was killed immediately. D is the proximate cause of V’s death.
Involuntary Manslaughter:
Is when a homicide is committed without malice while conducting yourself in a lawful manner. D was the actual & proximate cause of V’s death. D was driving carefully and within the posted speed limit. Therefore, D was conducting herself in a lawful manner.
However, D was delivering cocaine, a misdemeanor.
Misdemeanor Manslaughter Rule:
If a person is killed during the commission of a misdemeanor then the defendant may be found guilty of manslaughter. Here, D was delivering cocaine, a misdemeanor, and V was killed during the act of the crime. Therefore, D may be found guilty of manslaughter.
Defenses
Duress – supra.
